International Organisation Food And Agriculture Organisation Politics Essay

International Organisation Food And Agriculture Organisation Politics Essay The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO, or ONUAA for its French equivalent Organisation des Nations Unies pour lalimentation et lagriculture is a specialised agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. FAO acts as a neutral forum, serving both developed and developing economies, where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is a source of information and knowledge, and helps developing countries/ countries in transition to modernise and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring adequate nutritional bal. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates into English as let there be bread. As of 8 August 2008[update], FAO has 191 members states along with the European Union and the Faroe Islands, which are associate members. 2. The Food and Agriculture Organization  [1]  of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat hunger. During its last summit in 2009, plan of action including seven commitments was drawn out. First of it is to ensure an enabling political, social and economic environment for eradication of poverty, most conducive to achieving food security for all. The importance of basic human right to food and sustainable agriculture was acknowledged by the summit. FAO has a special programme for food security which is country based steering committee. Another programme, food security and vulnerability information and mapping system (FIVIMS) is established at world food summit and is monitoring undernourished people and issues of food access. United Nations Development Programme 3. The United Nations Development Programme is concerned with integrating human rights in all global development activity, such as democratic governance, poverty reduction, crisis prevention and recovery, energy and environment  [2]  . Export Credit Agencies (ECA) Watch 4. ECA Watch is an outreach mechanism of a larger international campaign to reform Export Credit Agencies (ECAs). Non-governmental organisations working on issues related to the environment, development, human rights and anti-corruption participating in this campaign lobby national and global ECAs to improve their environmental policies and practices. World Agro forestry Centre 5. The World Agro forestry Centre is an autonomous, not-for-profit research and development institution supported by nearly 60 different governments, private foundations regional development banks and the World Bank whose primary mission is to improve food and nutritional security and enhance environmental resilience in the tropics  [3]  . International Food Policy Research Institute(IFPRI) 6. Aimed at identifying and analysing policies for sustain ably meeting the food needs of the developing world. The research at IFPRI focuses on economic growth and poverty alleviation in low income countries and the sound management of the natural resource base that supports agriculture  [4]  . IFPRI seeks to make its research results available to all those in a position to use them and to strengthen institutions in developing countries that conduct research relevant to its mandate. Consultative Group on Agricultural Research 7. CGIAR is a strategic alliance of countries, global and regional organisations and private foundations supporting 15 international agricultural centers. It works with national agricultural research systems and civil society organisations to achieve sustainable food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through scientific research and research-related activities in the fields of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, policy and the environment  [5]  . Harvest Plus 8. Harvest Plus, one of the CGIARs Global Challenge Programs, seeks to reduce the effects of micronutrient malnutrition by harnessing the power of plant breeding to develop staple food crops that are rich in micronutrients, a process called Bio fortification  [6]  . International Rice Research Institute 9. The International Rice Research Institute, an autonomous, non profit agricultural research and training organisation with offices in more than ten nations aims to find sustainable ways to improve the well-being of poor rice farmers and consumers while protecting the environment  [7]  . International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 10. IIED is a London-based independent, non-profit organisation that promotes sustainable patterns of development through collaborative research, policy studies, networking and knowledge dissemination. It works to address global issues like mining, paper industry and food systems. A 34 year-old organisation with a presence in 18 countries, IIED was the first recipient of the Blue Planet Prize (1992) for outstanding contributions to environmental policy and action  [8]  . Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) 11. CIFOR is an international research and global knowledge institution committed to conserving forests and improving the livelihoods of people in the tropics. CIFORs high impact research in 40 countries helps local communities and small farmers gain their rightful share of forest resources, while increasing the production and value of forest products  [9]  . International Water Management Institute 12. IWMI is a non-profit scientific research organization specialising in water use in agriculture and integrated management of water and land resources. The institute works with partners in the developing world to develop tools and methods to help these countries eradicate poverty and ensure food security through more effective management of their water and land resources  [10]  . World Health Organisation 13. The worlds foremost health agency, the World Health Organisation is the United Nations specialised agency for health, established with the objective is to achieve attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health  [11]  . The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) 14. A research institute with five Indian centers and four overseas affiliates, TERI is committed to every finding innovative solutions to critical energy and environment related issues and the challenges posed by sustainable development from providing environment-friendly solutions to rural energy problems to helping shape the development of the Indian oil and gas sector and from tackling global climate change issues across continents to enhancing forest conservation efforts among local communities  [12]   United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 15. Established in 1972, United Nations Environment Programme acts as a catalyst, advocate, educator and facilitator to promote the wise use and sustainable development of the global environment. To accomplish this, UNEP works with a wide range of partners, including United Nations entities, international organisations, governments, non-governmental organisations, the private sector and civil society  [13]  . United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 16. Located in New York. It has separate divisions called sustainable Energy and Environmental division (SEED) and Sustainable Lively hoods unit of poverty. The former focus on food security research and monitoring technical and policy issues e.g. food security action plans and the later focus on field and policy work having direct relevance to food security and emphasis on capacity building  [14]  . Centre for Science and Environment 17. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) is an independent, public interest organisation which aims to increase public awareness on science, technology, environment and development  [15]  . Environment News Service 18. The Environment News Service provides daily international news updates on the environment  [16]  . World Bank 19. World Bank is the major founder for Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) which conducts much of Green Revolution related R D. Adequacy Of Role/Contribution Of International Organisation 20. As per UN convention, Industrialised and developed countries are required to spend 0.7 percent of their national income on international aid. However, except Norway, Sweden, Luxemburg, Netherlands and Denmark, no other developed nation is meeting the target. (Data fact Map of UN). Lack of political consensus among developed countries on food security related issues and non implementation of UN convention in terms of national contribution towards aid has further weakened UN standing. Organisation of economic co-operation and development data mentions reduction of aid by 5.1 percent with effect from 2005 to economic crisis looming those countries. A mere scrutiny of mother organisation of world in respect of Global food security i.e Food And agriculture Organisation of United Nation enunciates the level of inadequacy of international agencies dealing with the crisis. 21. There has been severe public criticism  [17]  of FAO performance for the last 30 years. After the 1974 World Food Conference, due to dissatisfaction with the FAOs performance two new organizations ie World Food Council (WFC) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD were created. World Food Programme, which was started as an experimental 3-year programme under FAO, grew in size and independence, with the directors of FAO and WFP struggling for power. Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank based in Washington, D.C. wrote that the sad fact is that presently, the FAO has become essentially irrelevant in combating global hunger. In recent years, bloated bureaucracy known for mediocrity of its work and the inefficiency of FAO staff, the FAO has become increasingly politicised. In the same year, the Society journal published a series of articles about FAOs inefficiency and lack of transparency. 22, US State Department expressed the view that The Food and Agriculture Organization has lagged behind other UN organizations in responding to US desires for improvements in program and budget processes to enhance value for money spent. In 1991, The Ecologist magazine produced a special issue written by experts such as Helena Norberg-Hodge, Vandana Shiva, Edward Goldsmith, Miguel A. Altieri and Barbara Dinham under the heading The UN Food and Agriculture Organization: Promoting World Hunger and questioned FAOs policies and practices in forestry, fisheries, aquaculture, and pest control. 23. In 1996, World Food Summit organised by FAO was attended by 112 Heads or Deputy Heads of State and Government and concluded with the signing of the Rome Declaration, which established the goal of halving the number of people who suffer from hunger by the year 2015. In the meantime, 1,200 Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) from 80 countries participated in an NGO forum. The forum was critical of the growing industrialisation of agriculture and called upon governments and FAO to do more to protect the Right to Food of the poor. Although some progress has been made during the last twenty years, the future is not bright. At the World Food Summit in 1996, high-level policy makers from more than 112 countries agreed to the goal of reducing the number of food-insecure people by half, to 400 million, between 1990 and 2015. At the follow-up Summit in 2002, policy makers from the same countries reaffirmed the same goal. Unfortunately, action does not seem to follow rhetoric. Even after ten years of first summit less than one third of the countries managed to reduce the number of food-insecure people, while one half experienced an increase. 24. To reach this target of world food summit, 22 million people need to escape from food insecurity every year. But only 6 million have been fortunate enough to do so. Given the progress, this commitment seems to have been mere lip service. Till date the countries who undertook this commitment have made choices each year about how to spend money and expend effort and policy goals to pursue. But for the vast majority, food security has never made it near the top of the agenda. With the present policies and approaches now being pursued in most countries and international organizations, there is no possibility of achieving sustainable food security for all in next decade. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations projects that even the more limited WFS goal will be met not by 2015, but by 2050.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior Essay

Human Resource Management (HRM) is defined as the organizational function that focuses on recruiting, management, and the directing of the employees that work in the organization. It also deals with compensation, performance management, organization development, safety, wellness, benefits, employee motivation, communication, administration, and training. Even though the HR functions evolved, some things never change. Since most companies will always need the traditional HR functions such as hiring and firing employees, providing pay and benefits packages, training and developing the workforce, and dealing with employer – employee conflicts. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is a concept defined as the set of additional activities that are beneficial to an organization and its employees. These activities are not required in a formal way; that is, they are not stated in a contract nor required by the company. OCB is commonly a behavior of employees towards their company and vice versa. It is clear that the organization’s HRM plays a vital role in implementing OCB through creating a well-established relationship between the organization and the employees. Rousseau and Geller argued that this relationship’s status is critical in the amount of OCB produced by employees where the company must deliver first a few requirements. (cited in Morrison, 1996). Schuller states that each company’s HRM has a set of principles and values that are integrated in its overall philosophy, which includes a respectful treatment of its employees (cited in Morrison, 1996). According to Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and Sowa, how effective is an organization in applying that philosophy is related towards how much the employees feel appreciated in their work place and therefore related to the amount of OCB displayed (cited in Morrison, 1996). OCB is present in all companies and can be considered a cycle. In fact, the HR department encourages OCB through several actions, which pave the way to creating a healthy organizational culture where the company protects its employees who are devoted to their company. This report will discuss OCB in Middle East Airlines (MEA) by taking a closer look at the employee – company relationship and the company – employee relationship. Literature Review on Organization Citizenship Behavior How Companies Encourage OCB In order for employees to work on achieving OCB, the human resource management has to work on some issues to help encourage each individual to participate in developing the company. The management must ensure that several things should be well done: Social Exchange, ldentification with Organizational Objectives, Empowerment, Selection and Socialization, Evaluation and Rewards, Rules and Job Descriptions. In an organization, Blau identified two types of relationships that tie the management and the employees together: the economic relationship and the social relationship (cited in Morrison, 1996). Konovsky and Pugh’ analysis states that it is more likely for employees to perform OCB under good social conditions than economic (cited in Morrison, 1996). Organ claims that this fact is due to several reasons: First, social relationships allow employees to have feelings of mutual trust with the organization and they will build long-term relationships with the management. This will encourage employees to help enhance the image of their company by practicing OCB. Second, the social relationship is one that is ambiguously defined, that is it does not have clear boundaries; therefore employees will more likely include certain citizenship acts in their job tasks (cited in Morrison, 1996). The identification of the employees with the organizational objectives is crucial for achieving OCB. That is because each individual will adopt and familiarize with the values and principles of the company, and hence become a part of its system, which will give a feeling of belonging and an encouragement for being part of the progress of the company. For employees to achieve OCB, Conger and Kanungo believe that they must be first willing to do so, and that is by being encouraged and empowered (cited in Morrison, 1996). Bowen and Lawler claim that many benefits are generated as a result of empowerment. First, it will shorten the time of response of employees to serve their customers. Second, the relationship between the employees and the customers will be more enthusiastic and kind. Third, it will allow the employees to be more innovative and generate ideas for the benefit of the company (cited in Morrison, 1996). Selection is the first phase of the entrance of an employee into a company. During this stage, Shore and Tetrick claim that each individual becomes aware of the job responsibilities in his field. Also, it is through this stage that the company indicates to the employee the responsibilities that the company has towards him as well, such as security, progress and training; hence it identifies a two-way relationship. This will lead to a feeling of respect and interest from the other party, which will lead to employees achieving OCB (cited in Morrison, 1996). Selection is also important in what is referred to by Chatman as person-organization fit: by learning about the organization’s objectives, the employee becomes aware that he or she will be chosen not solely for their job qualification, but for their compatibility with the work environment as well (cited in Morrison, 1996). Socialization as defined by Van Maanen and Schein is when the company prepares the new employees with the set of knowledge, approaches, and behaviors that they should apply in order to fit into their roles (cited in Morrison, 1996). Similar to selection, socialization is about showing the new employee that the relationship with the organization is based on social exchange. This can be clarified through such processes as orientation that holds within it more value than it shows. Chatman claims that socialization also familiarizes the employees with the company’s objectives and values not to mention that it plays a vital part in the empowerment process. (cited in Morrison, 1996). There are two extremes stated by Jones in applying socialization. The first is a highly institutionalized one where the new employees are separated and offered a common learning program. The second end is highly individualized, where employees are left on their own to engage in informal relationships with their fellow employees and to have self-learning experiences. There is however one disadvantage to socialization: when the objectives are clearly defined for employees, they tend to perform solely what they were expected to (cited in Morrison, 1996). Therefore, a company that seeks employee OCB will tend to have a more individualized socialization. OCB by definition includes the set of actions performed by employees that are not asked by management, therefore it is not directly rewarded. Thus, to encourage employees into applying this behavior, O’Reilly and Chatman believe that the company should employ indirect means that will encourage them to do so. That can be done by giving a reward to the organization’s performance as a whole. This will be helpful in two ways: first, it will further familiarize the employees with the company’s objectives and this way they will tend to act more upon achieving those goals through citizenship behavior. Second, by giving an award for the entire company’s performance, the organization will indirectly inform the employees that their job goes beyond what is clearly specified and limited into a certain role or department (cited in Morrison, 1996). According to Bowen, Siehl, and Schneider, when the company imposes a high number of rules and regulation, it is limiting and discouraging the employees’ ability to perform tasks outside their field of work, therefore limiting the OCB that can be achieved in that organization. A high number of rules will clearly define the limits of the economic exchange relationship between the employees and their company which will diminish their will to achieve OCB by determining exactly what the employees are asked to do and not to do and preventing them from engaging in any other action that is indirectly rewarded even if it benefits the company as a whole. Hence, in order for employees to want to perform citizenship behavior, the company must reduce its rules and thus create a social exchange relationship (cited in Morrison, 1996). Like rules and regulations, if a company describes the employees’ job in a very precise and narrow matter, it will reduce according to Bowen and Lawler the citizenship behavior applied by its subordinates. Employees will then have extremely well defined tasks to perform with no regard to any other company-wide actions. That way the exchange relationship between employee and company will more likely to be economic, not to mention that it reduces empowerment by limiting the resources needed by employees such as knowledge and skills to taking action towards OCB (cited in Morrison, 1996). How Employees Exercise OCB: To achieve organizational citizenship behavior, employees must practice different means. First, as Organ defines it, helping behavior is critical and evident in creating inter-employee relationships. Such behavior can be noted in the simplest acts such as when an employee assists his co-worker when the latter is overstrained with his paperwork or any other task being done. Second, according to Organ as well, sportsmanship, another dimension of OCB, is the ability to accept criticism and unfortunate events in the company without complaints, verbal or written. Consider a meeting for a marketing idea where employees are brainstorming. When the group rejects someone’s idea and the latter accepts that without being offended, he/she is considered to have a sense of sportsmanship. Third, organizational loyalty is a major concept when it comes to having a constructive organizational culture. This is evident whereby when employees are loyal to their company, they would feel safer and more content about the workplace and the organization’s culture. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) Individual initiative, a fourth aspect of OCB, is represented in taking on additional responsibilities and engaging in task-improving actions without being asked to do so. This also includes encouraging others to do so, which helps the company as a whole improve. (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) An example is when an employee suggests to adopt a new method of performing a task, which he/she knows will improve the way things s done. Related to this is self-development, which is yet another dimension of OCB. According to George and Brief, self-development pertains to voluntarily engaging in development courses that are not required from the company in the attempt of improving one’s skills and broadening one’s knowledge. (Cited in Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) For instance, an employee could learn about upcoming seminars and training sessions and inform his colleagues of their dates. A different aspect of OCB is civic virtue, which can be defined as a commitment to the organization as a whole. This takes place through engaging in governing the organization indirectly, looking out for its best interest, and protecting it from threats. (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) A simple example of this is turning off the lights after having used the restroom. Similar to this is organizational compliance, the last dimension of OCB, which is when an employee complies with the company rules and regulations whether or not the latter is being monitored. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) Returning to work right after having finished the permitted lunch break is an example of organizational compliance. It is crucial to note that all these behavioral aspects of organizational citizenship behavior are not part of the work contract or job description. Factors that diminish OCB: Several factors antecede and affect organizational citizenship behavior. Such factors can be set into four basic categories: employee characteristics, organizational characteristics, task characteristics, and leadership behaviors. The influence of these categories on OCB can be either positive or negative. It is evident that OCB is present in all companies, whether on a noticeable scale or an imperceptible one. This report will be depicting the negative relations between OCB and its antecedents, whereby, according to studies done in a meta-analysis by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, and Bachrach, it has been found that organizational and task characteristics have little impact on OCB relative to individual and leadership behaviors which have greater impact on OCB. Employee or individual characteristics affect the presence of OCB and how much the latter contributes to building a constructive organizational culture. Taking two extremes, one can consider an employee who is indifferent of his/her company’s interest. The latter would surely not engage in activities pertaining to civic virtue, thus not exercising good citizenship behavior. The other extreme is an employee who is very concerned about the company’s interest and always seeks to attain goals that hold the company’s benefit. Such employee is more likely to be engaged in the different dimensions of citizenship behavior. To go back to the bigger image, an employee’s characteristics help in determining how well OCB is exercised in an organization. Indeed, it is found that the existence of OCB increases with the increase of employee loyalty and concern to the organization, and decreases with indifference to the greater benefit of the company and the rewards granted for good citizenship behavior. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000) Leadership behaviors are quite correlated to the presence of citizenship behavior in an organization. According to another meta-analysis reported by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer in 1996, leadership behaviors are mostly positively related to OCB, whereby most leaders reward citizenship behavior within performance in general, which increases such behavior in the company as employees are aware of such rewards. The only negative leadership behaviors are contingent and non-contingent punishment behavior as well as leader specification of procedures. This is due to the fact that employees feel confused as to why leaders perform contingent punishment, thereby decreasing their citizenship behavior. Non-contingent punishment is a discouraging factor by itself, which makes it obvious why it negatively affects OCB in an organization.

Relationship between SAT Scores and Family Income Essay

What is the Relationship between SAT Scores and Family Income of the Test Takers around the World? Introduction The SAT examination is mostly in today’s world of academics, a requirement of getting accepted into collage. Not only is it enough to take the examination but the student has to pass with an average score or above to even have his/her application be considered. Many students around the world recognize this and therefore apply to prep schools for the SAT or their parents send them to a higher educational institution for that purpose. The prep schools such as Princeton are not cheap however as it helps give advice on how to best tackle the SAT examination, neither are higher educational institutions. Also it can be considered a luxury service by some middle class and low class societies in the world to be able to attend either one. This being said, the SAT prep course and higher educational institutions are, as a result, aimed at the high class societies in the world or those who can afford it. If this is true, it would put families with a higher income at an advantage for their children to get accepted into collage compared to families who cannot afford for their children to take the course or school fee and learn the advice of how to pass the SAT examination with a high score. Are the collages which students aim to be accepted into for a better education really based on which families can afford for their children to take the SAT prep course or learn at a higher educational institution? The data collected from Collage Board in year 2007 was analyzed to determine whether there is a relationship between SAT scores and family income of the test takers around the world (Rampell). Statement of Task The main purpose of this investigation is to determine whether there is a relationship between SAT scores and family income of the test takers around the world. The type of data that will be collected is the SAT scores and family income of the two-thirds of test takers who voluntarily reported it to collage board when signing up for the SAT examination worldwide. The SAT scores are used to determine how high of a score the test taker got and family income to determine the possibility to send their children to SAT prep schools or better educational institutions. The data used to generate the data breaks down the average score for ten different income groups of $20,000 range. Plan of investigation I am investigating the relationship of SAT scores and family income of the test takers around the world. I have collected data on SAT scores and family income of the test takers around the world. With the collection of data that I have acquired, a number of mathematical processes were used to analyze the data: a scatter plot of the data, calculation of the least squares regression line and correlation coefficient. I am going to do a χ2 test on the data to show the dependence of SAT scores and family income of the test takers around the world. Mathematical Investigation Collected Data Family income of test takers| Percentage of test takers within each family income group| Critical reading| Math| Writing| ∑| Less than $10,000| 4%| 427| 451| 423| 1301| $10,000–$20,000| 8%| 453| 472| 446| 1371| $20,000–$30,000| 6%| 454| 465| 444| 1363| $30,000–$40,000| 9%| 476| 485| 466| 1427| $40,000–$50,000| 8%| 489| 496| 477| 1462| $50,000–$60,000| 8%| 497| 504| 486| 1487| $60,000–$70,000| 8%| 504| 511| 493| 1508| $70,000–$80,000| 9%| 508| 516| 498| 1522| $80,000–$100,000| 14%| 520| 529| 510| 1559| Table 1: Mean SAT scores per section categorized in family income of test taker in 2007 More than $100,000| 26%| 544| 556| 537| 1637| This bottom row, the â€Å"More than $100,000† I am going to consider as an outlier therefore excluded in all calculations as it goes from $100,000 up to the millions of dollar of income which is too wide of a range to include into the calculations of this assessment. Graph 1 shows the average SAT score Vs. family income of test taker. As of now, there seems to be very strong positive correlation. It does appear that the SAT scores improve as the family income increases. (Graph was generated through Microsoft Excel) Calculation of the Least Squares Regression The Least Square regression identifies the relationship between the independent variable, x, and the dependent variable, y. It is given by the following formula: y-y= SxySx2 (x-x) where Sxy= xyn- xy and Sx2=x2n-x2 Table 2: Values of Least Squares Regression x| y| xy| x2| 15000| 1301| 19515000| 225000000| 25000| 1371| 34275000| 625000000| 35000| 1363| 47705000| 1225000000| 45000| 1427| 64215000| 2025000000| 55000| 1462| 80410000| 3025000000| 65000| 1487| 96655000| 4225000000| 75000| 1508| 113100000| 5625000000| 85000| 1522| 129370000| 7225000000| 95000| 1559| 148105000| 9025000000| ∑ = 495000| ∑ = 13000| ∑ = 733350000| ∑ = 33225000000| x = 55000| y = 1444.44| xy = 79444444.44| x2 = 3691666667| These are the calculated values used in finding the Least Squares Regression Sxy= xyn- xy Sxy= 7333500009- 79444444.44 Sxy= 2038888.893 Sx=x2n-x2 Sx=332250000009-3025000000 Sx=25819.88897 y-y= SxySx2 (x-x) y-1444.44444= 2038888.893(25819.88897)2 (x-55000) y= 0.0030583333x+1276.231666 Calculation of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between the two variables (SAT scores and family income of test taker). It is given by the following formula: r= SxySxSy where Sx= x-x2n, Sy = y-y2n and Sxy is the covariance xyn- xy. Table 3: Values of Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient x| y| x-x2| y-y2| 15000| 1301| 1600000000| 20576.30864| 25000| 1371| 900000000| 5394.08642| 35000| 1363| 400000000| 6633.197531| 45000| 1427| 100000000| 304.308642| 55000| 1462| 0| 308.1975309| 65000| 1487| 100000000| 1810.975309| 75000| 1508| 400000000| 4039.308642| 85000| 1522| 900000000| 6014.864198| 95000| 1559| 1600000000| 13122.97531| ∑ = 495000| ∑ = 13000| ∑ = 6000000000| ∑ = 58204.22222| x = 55000| y = 1444.44| | | These are the calculated values used in finding the Correlation Coefficient. Sx= 25819.88897 Sy = 58204.222229 Sy = 80.4185041 r= 2038888.893(25819.88897)(80.4185041) r=0.9819360378 r2=0.9642983824 The calculation r2=0.9642983824 suggests that the strength of the association of the data is very strong since 0.90 < r2 < 1. I compared this value of r2 with the standard table of coefficient of determinations which places it in the â€Å"very strong† category (Whiffen). r2=0.9642983824 y= 0.0030583333x+1276.231666 Graph 2 indicates that there is a strong positive linear correlation. This is also indicated through the value of correlation coefficient, 0.96.(the graph was generated through Microsoft Excel ) Calculation of a χ2 test The χ2 test is used to measure whether two classifications or factors from the same sample are independent of each other – if the occurrence of one of them does not affect the occurrence of the other. χ2= fo-fe2fe Observed Values: | B1| B2| Total| A1| A| B| A+B| A2| C| D| C+D| Total| A+C| B+D| N| Calculations of Expected Values: | B1| B2| Total| A1| A+B(A+C)N| A+B(B+D)N| A+B| A2| A+C(C+D)N| B+D(C+D)N| C+D| Total| A+C| B+D| N| Degrees of freedom measure the number of values in the final calculation that are free to vary: Df=rows-1(columns-1) Null (H0) Hypothesis: SAT scores and family income are independent from each other. Alternative (H1) Hypothesis: SAT scores and family income are dependent from each other. Table 4: Observation Values Score| Income($)| 1300-1430| 1431-1561| Total| 15000 – 55000| 4| 1| 5| 56000 – 96000| -| 4| 4| Total| 4| 5| 9| Table 2 shows the observed values for SAT score Vs. family income. The data pieces have been put into ranges that represent the income of the families of the test takers. Table 5: Calculations for the Expected Values Score| Income($)| 1300-1430| 1300-1430| Total| 15000 – 55000| 4+1(4+0)9| 4+1(1+4)9| 4+1| 56000 – 96000| 4+0(0+4)9| 1+4(0+4)9| 0+4| Total| 4+0| 1+4| 9| Table 3 shows the individual calculations for each of the expected values. Table 6: Expected Values Score| Income($)| 1300-1430| 1300-1430| Total| 15000 – 55000| 2.22222| 2.77777| 5| 56000 – 96000| 1.77777| 2.22222| 4| Total| 4| 5| 9| Table 6 shows the expected values retrieved by the calculations in table 4 χ2= fo-fe2fe χ2= 4-2.2222222.22222+1-2.7777722.77777+0-1.7777721.77777+4-2.2222222.22222 χ2=5.759995408 Df=rows-1(columns-1) Df=2-1(2-1) Df=1 The χ2 critical value at 5% significance with 1 degree of freedom is 3.841. As the χ2 value is greater than the critical value, 5.760>3.841, the null hypothesis is rejected and SAT score is assumed dependent from family income. Discussion/Validity Limitations Throughout the investigation between the correlation of SAT scores and family income, various limitations may have affected the outcome of the results. One limitation of the data collected could be that it only reflects on the people who filled in the family income section before signing up for the SAT. There is no evidence that the data reflects everyone who has taken the SAT score as there may be people who did not fill that section. Another limitation could be that not everyone in the world decide to take the SAT, people who cannot afford it or take alternative tests are being neglected. Also the data does not confirm of how many SAT takers are being considered. The data can be proved insufficient and inaccurate for those reasons. There is also a limitation in the data as it states income of â€Å"$100,000 and above†. That could mean that the data goes on unto family incomes of millions which is not proportionate to the other ranges of family income given. Due to this however, that piece of data was left out in the calculations. Continuing, there might be a limitation to the recording of the data itself as SAT takers are to take a survey where they mention family income when signing up for SAT. This might cause a problem as many SAT takers, mostly in ages 15-17, do not know the actual income of their family therefore wrong data may be entered. Then there could be a limitation to the data due to culture and race. The data does not mention culture and race which might affect the data as there might have been more American surveys who mentioned family income compared to Asian who answered the survey. Another limitation is that the table of expected values in the χ2 test has all values less than 5 which reduces its validity.   Adding on to that, there might be a limitation to the amount of data that was collected as 9 pieces of data may not prove to be sufficient enough to reflect the correlation between SAT scores and family income in a world perspective. Lastly, there may be many other factors taking place when considering the correlation between SAT scores and family income such as reasons for having a high family income and IQ of SAT test takers. Conclusion Despite of the previously mentioned limitations, the found χ2 value, 5.760, rejects the null hypothesis that SAT scores are independent from family income and accepts the alternative hypothesis that SAT scores are dependent from family income. Furthermore, the investigation clearly shows that there is a strong and positive correlation between SAT score and family income as it can be an assumed dependence from each other. Work Cited Rampell, Catherine. â€Å"SAT Scores and Family Income – NYTimes.com.† The Economy and the Economics of Everyday Life – Economix Blog – NYTimes.com. 28 Aug. 2009. Web. 01 Nov. 2010.. Downey, Joel. â€Å"SAT Scores Rise with Family Income.† Cleveland OH Local News, Breaking News, Sports & Weather – Cleveland.com. 10 Apr. 2008. Web. 01 Nov. 2010.. Whiffen, Glen, John Owen, Robert Haese, Sandra Haese, and Mark Bruce. â€Å"Two Variable Statistics.† Mathematics for the International Student: Mathematical Studies SL. By Mal Coad. [S.l.]: Haese And Harris Pub, 2010. 581-82. Print.

The Effect Of Welding On Developing High Speed And...

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